An inquiry into male preference and gender roles in classical Athens: legal, social, and family dynamics

Abstract

Background: In Classical Athens (5th-4th century BCE), the value of male children was deeply embedded in legal, social, and economic structures, significantly shaping gender expectations and family responsibilities. Sons were seen as the primary heirs, protectors, and caregivers of aging parents, while daughters were largely confined to domestic roles. This study examined how Athenian laws, particularly Solon's reforms, reinforced the obligation of sons to care for their parents, linking filial duty to inheritance rights. Method: This study employed a historical and qualitative approach, analyzing primary sources (Plutarch, Life of Solon; Xenophon, Oeconomicus) alongside archaeological evidence (funerary and legal inscriptions). Gender roles and family responsibilities were examined through a thematic analysis of legal texts, literary sources, and epigraphic evidence, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of societal attitudes toward male and female children. Results: The analysis revealed that Athenian laws and customs consistently prioritized male children, with sons guaranteed inheritance and responsible for parental care, while daughters were largely excluded. The study found that these legal and cultural norms reinforced a gender hierarchy, where women's social value was tied to their ability to produce male heirs. Conclusions: By exploring the connection between law, family structure, and gender roles, the study contributes to a broader understanding of how ancient Greek attitudes toward male children have shaped long-term gendered family obligations.