International Conference on South and Southeast Asian Association for the Study of Culture and Religion (SSEASR)

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Rituals in Transition: Migration and Cultural Transmission
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Papageorgiou, N.
Over the last years, a series of political and social changes have turned the research interest regarding the migrational phenomenon towards the issue of migrants’ culture. A set of factors, such as the enlargement of the migrational phenomenon during the last decades of the twentieth century as a result of the ongoing globalization, the emergence of ethno-cultural heterogeneity resulting from the variety of migrants’ origin, the emphasis on the issue of migrants’ cultural identity rather than financial parameters, all indicate that culture constitutes a strong factor of the multifaceted and multidimensional migrational issue. At the same time, it becomes clear that migrants are not merely defined as work force or consumers, but as carriers of a distinct ethno-cultural identity and culture related to a community or ethnicity and they bear all the special characteristics of this culture. An important dimension of the migrants’ culture is religion, which acquires a crucial significance for tackling the traumatic experience of migration and contributes essentially via religious institutions in the incorporation of migrants in host societies. The researchers confirm that, regardless of the confessional or ritual differences, religion many times defines both the individual and collective identity of migrants and that religious institutions offer their premises for the realization of ethnic assemblies, celebrations and traditional customs, while at the same time offer help for practical issues such as employment, accommodation, education and migrational documents. At this point the role of rituals acquires particular significance, as they constitute one of privileged “places” of transmission, reproduction and conservation of the cultural and religious identity of migrants. In this paper, we investigate the role of rituals and religious celebrations in the migrant experience. Which are the functions and the dynamics of the rituals to the passage from one world to another? In which way are those reproduced in the host society? Do they have the same significance as in the home country? Are they reproduced in the same way or are they adapted in the new environment? What is the role of the reinforcement of individual and collective identity of migrants and does this affect the reproduction of their particular culture? As a case study we have used the community of Sikh immigrants in Greece.
The Privatization of Ownership in the Sphere of Khap Lam Melodies
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Akiko, H.
This paper aims to discuss the -privatization of the ownership of Khap Lam folklore music, which the Lao people living in Thailand and Lao PDR have owned jointly. Looking at their brief history, the Lao have lived in the fateful trajectory of “the -closest but the farthest neighbors.” Since French colonization was launched in the Southeast Asian mainland and demanded the Siam and the Lao to demarcate the international border, the Lao—who have inhabited in the Khorat plateau and the current country of Lao PDR—have been separated into two different nation-states. The Lao in northeastern Thailand includes approximately one of third of the national population, while the Lao in Lao PDR, with a population of approximately 6 million, have gone through several wars and civil conflicts over many centuries, including the revolution for independence in 1975. Furthermore, the former has deployed capitalist economic policies as opposed to the latter which was administered by a diplomatically socialistic government during the Cold War. Although the Lao people share common customs, food and language, these political differences have given rise to some controversial issue related to the privatization of ownership in the process of making folklore music as a “commodity.” Conventionally, folklore music has been also orally passed from master to pupil, and also informational knowledge has been inscribed into the body. When the embodied knowledge was remade into commodities such CDs or VCDs, the perception of private ownership of the music emerged— through the process of copyright law in both countries. Therefore, this paper attempts to clarify what consequences international legal standardization has brought to folklore musicians in the intercultural relations among the Lao people in Thailand and the Lao PDR with regard to Lam melodies.
Unstable Tradition: Heritage and the Religious in the Garhwal Himalaya of North India
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Pennington, B.
Drawing on the work of two activist organizations currently operating in the North Indian state of Uttarakhand, this paper analyzes the malleability of the concept of heritage and its furtive embrace of the religious in the context of globalizing capital. Heritage consists, on the one hand, of the moment-to-moment interventions in the production of identity demanded by the political space of liberal democracy in the pluralistic nation-state; on the other, as a source of contemporary politicized identity, heritage calls forth a selective past that always threatens to undermine the very project for which it was summoned. The drama troupe SamvednaSamooh (A Company of the Concerned) stages heritage performances throughout Uttarakhand to inscribe particular iterations of regional tradition that render the religious in terms of folklore while evoking spontaneous ritual responses in its audiences. Similarly, Ganga Ahvaan (A Call to Save the Ganga) advocates for the halt to construction of hydroelectric projects along the upper reaches of the Ganges River on the basis of the river’s foundational role in the generation of “Indian culture” for “thousands” of years. In either case, an appeal to a shared national or regional heritage cannot be made without reference to the religious, but the particularities of the religious call into question the en-heritaged subjectivities so produced.
Economic Globalization and Cultural Heritage in Sri Lanka Today
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Dicken, E.
This paper explores the essentiality of economic policy to the cultural expression of heritage. Especially in multicultural countries, widely agreed-upon economic objectives and opportunities to participate in them is central to the expression of diverse strands of heritage that make up the overall culture. As a Buddhist majority and a Hindu majority culture, Sri Lanka is an important case study for analysis of the relationships between economics and heritage. This paper takes the long view to recognize significant economic issues since Sri Lanka’s independence. At Independence, the country had much initial postcolonial promise with a prosperous export sector, high education levels, a stable macro economy and strategic location. Significantly, the initial postcolonial period saw a unified country through struggle against the British. However, this promise became derailed during the civil conflict, which had both economic roots and impact. In response to this history, this paper will focus on the current post-conflict era to stress that a harmony of diverse heritages can be achieved through current economic policies that promote the well-being of diverse communities, including inter-regional cooperation and connectivity across South Asia.
The Concept of Ethics in Islam (Sociological Perspective)
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Yasin, G.
It has been stated in various Encyclopaedias that Islamic ethics took shape gradually and achieved maturity after a long process of cultural assimilation and in this process various practical ideals were amalgamated to form standard norms of conduct within the Muslim community. The origin of ethics in Islam does is not based in Greek thinking, but in the Scriptures. The biblical Pentateuch contains Ten Commandments of negative nature, and Christianity only adds one — ‘love thy neighbour like thyself’. Al-Qur’an, in continuation of those commandments, adds numerous commandments, both positive as well as negative. The other source of these ethical values is the Tradition of the Prophet. Muslim Philosophers and scholars explained these moral values from time to time, during the course of which they had the benefit of Greek thought, but to the extent of proving the virtues and vices, without of course adding to the sum total given in the Qur’an and the Tradition. They followed the same method in their expositions as did the Schoolmen before them, i.e. with the help of Aristotle’s logic they tried to prove Christian dogmas. The present paper deals with the origin of ethics in Islam from sociological point of view as well as great philosophers’ perspective like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle etc.
Religious Healing in War-Affected Children in Sri Lanka
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Thoradeniya, W.M.S.M.K.
The impact of war on children was mainly given attention after the Second World War. The reason was researchers found that Second World War caused many children to be severely affected by war in many ways and especially it caused many children to be displaced and separated from their families. Therefore, attention has been focused on the mental health and psychological and emotional well-being of children after Second World War and healing techniques were planned accordingly. Psychiatric treatment (mental health approach) was one of those methods practiced to address psychological problems of the war-affected population. During that time most commonly used psychiatric treatments were cognitive behavioural therapy, pharmacotherapy and dynamic psychotherapy. It seems that these methodologies influenced the healing programmes operated in war areas worldwide. However, the use of psychiatric treatments or mental health approach alone in healing activities came under severe criticism later on. On one hand critiques state that healing mechanisms must be planned and designed according to the social structure in a society and that the cultural background of that society must be kept in mind. On the other hand, critiques highlighted that in the third world countries where war is more prevalent, there is a huge shortage of professionals in the psychiatric field and therefore, difficult to heal war-affected people only through formal psychiatric methodologies. Therefore, in using the social context method, a few important factors can be observed. Firstly, it allows a larger population to be served within the healing process. Secondly, it is believed that social contextual methodologies can be accessed easily and at a lower cost. When taking into account of the social contextual methodologies researchers are of the view that the most suitable coping methods among the social contextual factors are ‘religious practices’ and ‘traditional beliefs’. In Sri Lankan history proved that this argument up to some extent and especially canonical literature has described how religion can be used in order to heal people’s mental and physical suffering. Therefore, main intention of this paper is to analyse the ways in which how religion, especially Buddhism can be used in order to heal war-affected children in Sri Lanka. This is a qualitative research solely based on a literature review on the relevant subject.
Lion Motif used in the Buddhist Architecture of Ancient Bangladesh
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Islam, S.K.Z.
Lion is the king of the animal world. They live in the plains and grassy hills. The male lion's job is to protect the clan from enemies. However, lions do not have any natural enemies. Due to these characteristics the lion has been considered through all ages in the world as a symbol of royalty and protection as well as of wisdom and pride. In Buddhism lions are symbolic of the Bodhisattvas. In Buddhist architecture, lion motifs were used as protectors of Dharma and therefore support the throne of the Buddha’s and Bodhisattvas. The lion motifs were also used at the entrance of the monasteries and shrines possibly for the same reason. In Bangladesh, there are various types of Lion motifs used in terracotta plaques of AnandaVihara, Rupbhanmura and ShalbanVihara at Mainamati in Comilla district, VashuVihara, Mankalirkundo at Mahasthangarh in Bogra district and SomapuraMahavihara at Paharpur in Naogaon district. This paper aims to address the cultural significance of the lion motif in Buddhist architecture of ancient Bangladesh and relates it to various types of representation to understand its origin and evolution.
Bodhisattva’s with many Heads in Ancient Southeast Asia
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Angal, D.G.
Lord Gautam Buddha himself travelled in Southeast Asia and conducted number of sermons to spread his thoughts. Subsequently, his Shravakas, Pramahas & Bodhisattva played important role in developing Buddhism in China, Japan and entire Southeast Asia. By exchanging ideas, rituals and beliefs from Hinduism and Buddhism, Pramahas developed religion in tune with the needs of the society and natural environment. Undergoing the changes due to adoption of Mahayanism, Lord Gautam Buddha's image was worshiped in Southeast Asia. In tune with the belief of Hinduism for God having more heads, hands being stronger, it seems that the Bodhisatva with many heads and hands might have emerged and practiced for worship. Over the years, the author collected many different idols with many heads, hands and postures. Out of the collection from his cabinet, the author presents about 12 different idols of Bodhisattva from the regions of Nepal, Thailand, Cambodia & China. The study will reveal new light on belief in Buddhism. The study may also reveal knowledge of era of these artefacts and the need to produce them for the worship of Shravakas or Pramahas.
In Conversation with the Village Diety: A study in a Sabara Tribal Community of Odisha
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Padhi, I.
Tribes, throughout the world have a unique religious life in the broad diversity of traditions. Festivals form an integral aspect of the socio-cultural life of tribal people. These people are highly religious by the fact that their world is full of mysteries and mostly governed by deities and spirits. Their religious beliefs and practices aim at ensuring personal security and happiness as well as community well being.The present paper tries to explain my personal experience during my stay in a rehabilitated tribal village -- Krushnanagar, during a festival season. The village is inhabited by Sabara tribal people, who have been displaced from the original village Dampada in Khurda district of Odisha. My field experience got more interesting when I witnessed the possession of some supernatural power to a man who begets the power to communicate with the local people. The period during which the goddess enters onto the body of the man is called “Kalisi”. During Kalisi, people accept the said person as a god man who could also be a medicine man of the locality. He is also accepted as the fortune teller of the community. Now, the questions are – 1. Does Kalisi acts as a defence mechanism in the community? 2. Is it essential for a healthy community life?? 3. Does Kalisihavea role to play in the process of social development??? My paper is an effort to answer to all these questions...
Religion and Democracy in Pakistan A Muslim Perspective
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Rehman, H.U.
The word ‘democracy’ has been derived from the Greek word demokratia (demos, the people, and kratein, to rule), i.e. a government in which the people hold the ruling power either directly or through elected representatives, or one may be tempted to say that it is a ‘system of rule by the ruled’. Democracy may be either direct, and exerted by popular assemblies or by plebiscites on all legislation, or indirect, and exerted by representative institutions. Direct democracy was practiced in some of the city stats of ancient Greece, where during the sixth and fifth centuries BCE most of the city-states achieved a more or less democratic constitution; indirect democracy, which is better suited to modern nations states with large populations, was developed in England in the seventeenth century (known as the Westminster type of democracy) and imposed on France and North America, as a result of revolution, in the eighteenth century. Thus started the age of democracy and by 1850 the majority of civilized nations had adopted democratic institutions. Now let us consider Pakistan. It is not an Islamic state in the true sense of the term, as Islam favours Presidential (or Khilafat) system more than the Parliamentary system. So far as democracy is concerned, it has been under military rule for almost half the period. It has become truly democratic after Article 58(2)(B) of the Constitution has been repealed. Henceforward it can be reasonably expected that the course of democracy in Pakistan will be smooth and swift. It is quite clear that Islam and democracy are not mutually exclusive. There are quite a few features, such as equality and tolerance, which are common to both. A truly Islamic state can, therefore, be set up in Pakistan which would be more democratic in the true sense than some of the modern states which claim to be democratic but are not so in actual sense of the term. To sum up, the concept of a Westminster type of democracy does not exist in Islam, though the guarantee of Civil Rights and the need to consult are common to both.
Continuity and Changes: The Evolution of Rakhine and Burmese Indigenous Medicine
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Coderey, C.
Based on my ethnographic fieldworks conducted in Rakhine State (Myanmar), my presentation focuses on the Rakhine indigenous medicine (taing-yin hsaypyinnya). The aim is to outline its origins, its principles, the evolution it underwent following the arrival of biomedicine (ingeleikhsaypyinnya) and, particularly, its partial transformation into a neo-traditional medicine by the hands of the government. Finally, the role these two forms of indigenous medicine play in the everyday life of Rakhine people.
Archaeological Landscape of the Lower Montane region of Sri Lanka: socio-religious aspect of archaeological sites
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Rambukwella, C.
The objective of the study is to survey the emergence and the development of the early human settlements in the middle Mahaweli river basin. This area represents the lower montane region of the island. The lower montane region of Sri Lanka belongs to the area from 1000 to 3500ft above the mean sea level. The Archaeological and historical evidence shows that the middle basin of the river Mahaweli has been thickly inhabited by humans since early Holocene. The continuity of the cultural activity of the middle and lower Mahaweli basin can be traced up to the l8th century and onwards. However, the middle part of the river basin has been neglected archaeologically during the last 100 years of research in the island due to some practical reasons. The textual information and cursory observations suggest that the middle Mahaweli basin has a great potential of cultural continuity from the pre- history up to the late historic period. 900 BCE demarcates the emergence of the early agricultural practice and the beginning of the use of Iron in Sri Lanka. Beyond that point the gradual expansion of the settled agricultural communities is evident throughout the island. In spite of that, the knowledge about the development of human settlement of the lower montane region is scarce. This scarcity is crucially influential to understand the subsequent developments in the middle basin of the river Mahaweli towards its upper reaches. In this research it is expected to unearth a set of field data, which will be able to support to understand the contribution of the human settlements to the cultural development of the island as a whole throughout the history. Within this context it is significant that almost all the archaeological sites have been directly connected to religion that embraced by the settlements in the vicinity, which will give an insight in to the religio-cultural aspect of heritage in ancient Sri Lanka. Moreover, current socio-economic development of the country, including in the lower montane region, and rapid demographic expansion threatened the survival of archaeological landscape of the respective locations. Therefore, survey, recording and study of this endangered archaeological heritage is crucially important for the future of the island.
Evaluating and Ameliorating Visual Impacts of Waterfalls Hydropower on Holy Sites
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Potkin, A.
There is no sharp line between “natural patrimony” and “cultural heritage” and commonly, sites or objects of primarily natural provenance may come to be ascribed with religious significance. Great cataracts - and sometimes even modest-sized waterfalls - are often considered as holy places and frequently are the venues for erecting shrines and temples. According to the original concept, the Upper Kotmale Hydroelectric Project (UKHP) in the tea country near Talawakelle, Sri Lanka was designed to terminate five waterfalls. Among the five waterfalls at least two were the sites of minor shrines and the third, the setting of a highly revered - amongst the Plantation Tamil community – a miracle temple. Initially, both the Japanese funders and the national project proponents were resistant to the concept of “aesthetic releases” which should have at least partially or intermittently conserved the beauty and spiritual character of waterfalls otherwise being sacrificed to energy development, but which would have necessarily entailed significant “opportunity costs”: i.e., foregone revenues for ungenerated and unsold power. The controversy over UKHP, largely on the waterfalls issue, delayed its construction for fifteen years, but it was eventually approved and quite recently completed, and the project as - implemented included consideration of aesthetics and cultural sensitivities. We will be presenting the original image archive produced in 1991 for the required environmental documentation, but also new interactive digital media from our December, 2013 post-facto evaluation of the UKHP’s actual visual impacts.
Virtual Users in Social Networks and their Involvement in Religious Perception: a Case Study on Undergraduates of University of Kelaniya
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Dilinika, J.M.S.
Social network is one of the most used communication media between people in nowadays. Human beings are influenced social networks through attitudes, behaviors, and social norms. Alternatively referred to as a virtual community or profile site, a social network is a website on the Internet that brings people together in a central location to talk, share ideas and interests, or make new friends. This type of collaboration and sharing of data is often referred to as social media. (computerhope.com) This study focuses on the usage of social network for serving, and publishing religion perspectives among users. This was measured using survey spread over 100 students focusing on social network usage, purposes, and religion effects. Participations were randomly selected among the undergraduates of University of Kelaniya. The results indicate that, students use more than one social network such as: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc. The students almost use Facebook 97%. Students discuss different type of questions while using social network and religions topics discussed by 51%. According to the results, posting religious photos by the users, they wish to express their religious perception according to their personal attitudes. This means that the social network is highly used as a way to serve and publish religious perspectives among users. Buddhist, Muslims and Catholics are the major users who involve in virtually in religious disseminations in Sri Lanka. During the special religious days, most of the users in social networks share creative ideas with religious advices. Not only that but also, there are some extremist ideas which condemn other religious visions and practices. This condition creates a negative social interaction between the virtual communities. The research indicates that the extremists’ influences on religious perception among undergraduates’ is not much as in the outside society. Finally, social media is a mode of expressing religious beliefs and it can create an image on religion during this digital era.
Analysis of Design and Structural Qualities of Earthenware Storage Products: Use of Kalaya in Sri Lankan Context
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Ranasinghe, D.
According to the Coomaraswamy (1949) there are four category of domestic clay ware items can be identified in the traditional houses in Sri Lanka as Cooking, processing, storage and transport objects. Sri Lanka had a grate endurance history for earthenware products and it origination goes back to prehistoric era. It was evaluated according to the usage and functionality of the product. As a result of the modernizing and needs of the people, objects and its usage were changed. Storage clay products are developed and designs for several purposes, they got inspirations for natural objects likes, labu ketaya, shells, that they were formerly used. They were identified earthenware is a proper material to produce storage items without getting any side effect for the consumer and foods. Liquid and dry substances used for storage. Kalaya is a one of the most popular and greatest design in the earthenware industry. It has traditional identity and advanced structural and aesthetical pleasing qualities to cater to the functionality. Earthenware storage product is such a vast area to study. This research focuses only about the storage Pot- Kalaya, examining its design, structural qualities and functionality. Earthenware products played a huge role in tradition. Clay ware can be identified as a horizon of the cultural empire and solid item which explains the past. Kalaya is a greatest creation in the earthenware industry. But in present, most of products less qualities with aesthetically, functionally and traditional objects were rarely used in the current society. New generations are not aware of the historical value of the product, design values, senses and how it can be observed or relevance to the usage. Kalaya is used as a research element in this paper, because it needs to be exploring about design, structural and functional qualities of the product. The methodology of the research was based on grounded theory method, the analysis is explored through actual descriptions made by observer, manufactures, historical records and existing products. The result of the research analysis leads different areas about traditional design of Kalaya or clay pot. It is a greatest design in the earthenware tradition in Sri Lanka. , it is developed to cater to the functionality. It has a superb shape and form, not only that but also it has good structural qualities, suitability for the functional usage, specially it is a talent of the craftsman. These findings are important to apply and process new designs for the earthenware industry in Sri Lanka.
Life Forms, Sacred Spaces and Sustenance in South India: Patram, Pushpam and Phalam
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Ramani, C.
The veneration of life forms in South India has been an explored as a paradigm for its multidimensional interpretations and cultural meanings in a land where holiness is a common attribute to creation. The various plants, shrubs, creepers, fruits and leaves have sacred conceptions and community reverence has served as an agent of traditional legitimation for its continuity in the religious ethos. The old mountains of the Eastern Ghats, far more hoary than the Himalayas, are thickly vegetated with deciduous varieties of seasonal and perennial fruits, trees and flowers which have been fetishes of Hindu worship for centuries. This paper would examine the inter-relatedness between the Vedic texts, Puranic lore and natural life forms, with descriptive references to Sanskrit literature of Medieval India (Malavikagnimitra and Kumarasambhava). The Coconut occupies a chief position in the pantheon of ritual offering and its ubiquity across pujas and the naivedyams are proof of its importance, which has a Puranic background. The Ketaki flower of Lingodbhava fame, Vilva bushes favoured by Shaivites, the Frangipanis on Mahavishnu accompanied by crimson Hibiscus flowers, has legendary association with the Skanda and Shiva puranas. Sacred groves (Nandita Krishna, 2014) at temples and the symbolic marital tie between the Ashwattha tree and the Neem represent an ecological harmony. The traditional betel leaf and nuts, an auspicious offering, signifies plenty and three time harvest in the peninsula. This link between religious meanings and vegetation inculcated a system of conservation and equilibrium, which the colonial hiatus supplanted with its monocultures of the mind (Vandana Shiva, 1993), scripted an unjust requiem to Bharatiya methods of preservation, where sacredness and sustenance co-existed.
The Religious Background of Bhitargarh, Bangladesh
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Jahan, S.H.
Bhitargarh, literally the “inner fort,” is believed to be a ruined city of King Prithu. It is the largest fortified settlement in Bangladesh extending over an area of about 25 square kilometres and located at Amarkhana union under PanchagarhSadar police station in Panchagarh district, Bangladesh. Interestingly, the site is transnational because portions of its outer enclosure on the north and northern parts of west and east are in Jalpaiguri district, West Bengal, India. Archaeological investigation has revealed that the site is enclosed within four concentric quadrangles created with earthen as well as brick ramparts. All quadrangles are surrounded by moats. There are ten ancient tanks including MaharajarDighi on 53 acres of land. Excavations have unearthed foundations of eight structural remains within the site those are roughly dated between 6th and 10th century CE. Findings include various types of red and gray ware sherds, pots, lamps, small bowls, very few copper and iron objects and a few fragments of sculptures. This paper wishes to analyze the findings of Bhitargarh unearthed from 2008 to 2014 in relation to understanding the religious history of the site.
Symbols, Art and Architecture in Regional Cultures - A Study on Sri Lankan Mosaic Art
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Embuldeniya, P.
This research paper principally attempts to describe about Sri Lankan Mosaic art which has great significance from art historical, archaeological and historical aspects. The methodology of this research paper consists with field research and library survey methods. A piece of art work created by placing coloured segments of tiles, porcelain, glass, stone and mineral in a pattern to create a picture is called as Mosaic art. Mosaic art tradition has extended history from BCE and in the world it is developed in various periods according to the subject and features. Mosaics are limited among the art historical sources in Sri Lankaand provide a rich context of art. In Sri Lanka, Mosaics can be seen at Karagampitiya Subodharamaya, Maduwanwela Walauwa, Vijayananda Viharaya-Galle and few other places near the coastal area. Animal figures, floral figures, geometric shapes, some objects and decorative motifs were illustrated from the Mosaic art tradition. Sri Lankan Mosaic art can be considered as art historical, archaeological and historical evidence which provide details about artistic features, techniques, symbolism, cultural combinations and trade relationships. According to the principal objective; introduction to Mosaics, historical background of Mosaic art, special features, foreign influences, present situation, reasons for weathering of mosaic designs in Sri Lanka and the importance of safeguarding Sri Lankan Mosaic art are describe through this research paper.
Kausambi: Buddhist Heritage Site of Sanctity and Divinity
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Mishra, R.
The ancient city of Kausambi, the capital of VatsaJanpad in ancient India, was bestowed with a unique heritage and cultural traditions accumulated through the ages. It was not only linked to Hindu kings and Sanskrit literature but also to important Buddhists and Jain kings. Lord Buddha had visited Kausambi in the 6thand 9thyear after attaining the enlightenment. Buddha lived in Kausambiduring two rainy seasons and preached to the people. Thus the place is special and linked to many sermons that were delivered by Lord Buddha and acquired the position of being seat of Buddhist teachings. King Asoka also held a deep affection for the city and as a testimony placed one of the famous Asoka Pillars here. In the wake of this development Buddhist art developed in and around Kausambi from the 3rdcentury BCE and before 6thcentury CE. Kausambi, being situated on a geo-strategic position had become metropolis in the ancient time. Being connected with all major trading and cultural cities like Gaya, Sarnath, Patna, Mathura it had become a hub of all the traders, scholars and artists who patronized the city and contributed in the areas of art, architecture and literature. The mobility in the population brought them in contact with foreign countries which speeded up exchange of ideas, religion, philosophy, technologies related to art and crafts, trade and commerce etc. particularly among India and other countries. The place is of great significance as it also witnessed schism in Buddhism. In theSuttaChtukkaNipata of AnguttaraNikaya it is stated that while the Lord Buddha was staying at the monastery of Ghositrama, where a monk named Bahiya, the disciple of Annuradha, was bent upon creating a schism in Sangha. The archaeological excavations have yielded a large number of sculptures of metals and terracotta, figurines, punch-marked and cast coins, which show the importance of the city, which was held in by the devout, traders and foreigners. The art of Kausambi has manifested itself in a variety of ways for a period of 900 years. The collection of art objects from Kausambiis now spread in various museums (Allahabad State Museum, Luckhnow) and is rich but the antiquities related to Buddhism is limited. The places related to Buddha’s life directly like Gaya, Sarnath, Kusinagar have been given a lot of prominence. The art and architecture of these places have been highlighted and a lot of work has been done but Kausambi despite being place of prominence remains in oblivion. The present monograph will emphasizes on the Buddhist philosophy and the development of art based on the stone sculptures connected with Buddhism recovered mainly from Kausambi and a few other neighbouring sites such as Bihta, Mainhai, Mankunwar and Deoria. Fa Xian1 has mentioned the shrine of Kausambi where Buddha once dwelt and has named it Garden of Gosira which historians believed he must have meant Ghositarama. The excavations had been carried out by G.R.Sharmaand the excavation report will also help in constructing the research design. The Methodology adopted in this paper is analytical as well as comparative. Efforts have been made to make the analysis as objective as possible. The remnants of the stūpas and the artefacts related to Buddhist art at Kausambi are of eminent importance from not only religious point of view but also from economic and social standpoint.A number of Suttas and Jatakas narrated by Lord Buddha such as KosambiSutta, UpakkilesaSutta, SekhaSutta, JaliyaSutta, DalhadhammaJataka, KosambiJataka, SurpanaJataka will help in constructing the facts. The traveller’s accounts of Fa Xian’sFoGuoJi2 translated by M. Abel Remusat, Samuel Beal’s translation of Xuan Zang’s3 book Xi You Ji4, who visited India in the 5th and 7th centuries respectively, will help in getting facts as they have left a good account on Kausambi. If history repeats itself, then taking examples of these evidences we can again think of making Kausambi a hub of culture and civilization. Kausambi again can leave imprint on faith and art. Thus Kausambi is a living testimonial of learning Buddhist history of what Santana had said that all those who do not learn the past intended to commit the mistakes of the past.
Impact of Climate change on Tourism in Sri Lanka: An Investigation
(University of Kelaniya, 2015) Silva, S.U.T.
Tourism is the act and process of spending time away from home in pursuit of recreation, relaxation, and pleasure, while making use of the commercial provision of services. It is further identified as a product of modern social arrangements. On the other hand, climate change refers to a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. The objective of this paper is thus to investigate negatives of climate change on Sri Lankan tourism while pointing out how tourism itself becomes a culprit of unconventional climatic transformations. Therefore,the research problem that is intended to answer through this study is “How feasible it is to establish a climate friendly tourism in Sri Lanka?” This study was mainly conducted in three stages. In the initial stage of data collecting, primary methodology in focus is to delve in to several unhealthy climatic conditions especially in relation to Sri Lankan tourist industry and to gather facts such as their causes, their severity, their impact and etc. Next, some insight was put on to identify and analyze how tourism itself is responsible in causing such conditions. Thus, several eco-friendly methodologies that can be practically implemented were introduced in some depth while constructing a realistic supply chain that highly favors the environment. In the final concluding stage, obvious possibility of climate friendly tourism was seen on the basis of three important concepts: “Avoidance, Substitution and Offsetting”. These conclusions are purely based on a qualitative analysis where an attempt is taken to introduce techniques of optimization within tourist industry for a better economy.