ICSS 2013

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Acceptance and rejection in Buddhist monasticism: spatial organization in Nalanda monasteries in Bihar
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Dhammananda, Galkande
When we reconstruct the history of relationships and hierarchies among people and groups the study of spatial organization provides much information. The „space‟ is a production that narrates the nature of relationships, hierarchies, organizational structures, rejection and acceptance of certain people and groups who live or interact with that particular space. Perhaps the story narrated by the spatial studies differs considerably from the story narrated by the literature. Such relationships, hierarchies and organizational structures that maintained in monasteries are reconstructed mainly considering on literary sources which have their own limitations and biases. Therefore, there is a vacuum for studies of the spatial organization of Buddhist monasteries. In this paper the spatial organization of Nalanda monasteries of Bihar (4th century to 13th century) is analyzed. Objectives of this paper are to explore and reconstruct the above mentioned different relationships, hierarchies and organizational structures that have been maintained among inmates and between lay and clergy of Nalanda, a Buddhist monastery that represents a mature level of the development of the idea of „monastery‟. In exploring this archaeological and architectural remains of ritual and residential spaces will be analyzed in details horizontally and vertically. The way of the ritual and residential spaces are organized, their orientations, centrality and different levels of restrictive methods adopted through spatial organization will be analyzed here. Several levels of hierarchies among monks and between lay and clergy are seen. While attempting to keep lay people away from the spaces of the monks the effort is seen to welcome them with certain restrictions and limitations.
The Afrikan Sri Lankans: culture, community and continuity
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Mandy, L.
The Afrikans* currently living in Sri Lanka are a diverse group. Some are students, some are members of diplomatic missions and embassies. Most intend to return to their home countries once they have attained their goals in Sri Lanka. Those Afrikans who have lived in Sri Lanka for most if not all of their lives have a different and fascinating history. It starts with their origins, which are often unclear. It continues with the name used to classify those- Kaffir (Kapiri in Sinhala) which is a derogatory term. This history includes the capture, forced migration, and enslavement of their ancestors by Afrikan, Arab, Portuguese, Dutch, and British profiteers and by wealthy Sri Lankan and Indian royalty, merchants, and landholders. It continues with success in surviving and prospering in a foreign land amidst differing cultures, languages, and holding a different status within the caste systems in Sri Lanka. And as we view the Afrikan Sri Lankans today, we see them in communities in various parts of Sri Lanka. They are continuing to assimilate successfully into the larger society while, in many cases, retaining distinctive Afrikan physical features and cultural forms. This paper discusses the Afrikan Sri Lankans through an Afrikan-centered lens that focuses on their history, present situations, and futures. Afrikan-centered theory uses Afrikan values as theoretical and experiential frameworks through which to understand the trials and triumphs of Afrikan peoples wherever they are found. Photos of members of the various communities will be used to illustrate aspects of the assimilation and acculturation processes in which they are engaged. Questions that remain unanswered regarding their past will be raised and discussed. *The spelling of „Afrikans‟ with a „k‟ rather than with a „c‟ as in „Africans‟ is purposely done. Its use is explained in the paper.
“Bokken ranga pāmuda”: gut feeling, instinct and rhetoric of Sri Lankan actor learning
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Liyanage, S.
The mental representation of learning as a dominant model of knowledge acquisition has been a long standing formula for Western pedagogy. Within the sensation-idea-response model (Barnacle 2009, Horn and Wilburn 2005) the subject perceives the objects and conceptualizes ideas in the brain and generates actions through the body. Thus, the relationship between perception and action is hierarchical as the action is secondary to the perception (Noë 2005, Johnson, 2007).This epistemological problem is the result of the disembodied mind propagates by the Cartesian tradition. It is no exception when it comes to the discourse of acting: the rhetoric of acting has also been affected by this split (Zarrilli 2002); the actor‟s mind is regarded as the rational knower and the active mover of the body. However some actors in Sri Lankan theatre often refer the phrase “bokken ranga pāmu” (act from the gut) as metaphorical expression of how the actor should act truthfully. It further means that the good actor does not act from the heart or intellect but from the „gut instinct‟ of the body. This metaphorical idea of „gut‟ replaces the „disembodied rational thinking‟ in the mind with something fleshy embedded in the „intestine‟ of the actor‟s body. In this paper, I utilize a cognitive phenomenological reading of Sri Lankan actors‟ descriptive data gathered through semi structured interviews. In doing so, I want to show how these actors challenge the idea of mental representation of learning by introducing a visceral origination of their knowing (Dewey 1896, Merleau-Ponty 1962, Dreyfus, 2002) and the synergy of thoughts and imagination coupled with the lived body.
Buddhism in Early Medieval North India (6th Century CE to 13th Century CE)
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Yadav, D.
The paper explores the presence of Buddhism in north India during the early medieval period (600 CE-1300 CE) which is generally defined as the decline period in mainstream historical analyses. Present Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Bihar formed the zion of early Buddhism. Four great Buddhist pilgrimage centres-Rajgir and Vaiśalī (Bihar) and Sānkāśya and Śrāvastī (Uttar Pradesh) lie in this region. Nālanda, uddańḍpura and Vikramaśila continued as centres of Buddhist learning during this period. Archaeological evidences assert that Lumbini maintained its existence till at least the 10th century CE. Gahadavala kings (circa 11th century) gave land grants to Buddhist Parivrājakas. Bodh Gaya presents evidence of the intimate relationship between India and Sri Lanka. During Aśoka's reign (269 BCE) a branch of the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya was grafted at Anurādhapura, Sri Lanka. The paper explores all these sites and traces the network of Buddhist religious institutions while examining the relations between Buddhist ritual functionaries and royal authorities. This research will attempt to critically examine various frameworks given by scholars for this period. Feudal model, given by R.S. Sharma, propounds that Buddhist religious institutions decayed during this period. Integrative model given by B.D. Chattopadhyaya says that although ancient institutions decayed during this period, new institutions also emerged during the same time. This research will attempt to infer the factual status of Buddhism during the said period based on the above mentioned models.
Buddhist point of view on married life
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Peiris, H.R.N.
Role of husband and wife in the main society has become more complicated in the modern society. As a result, tendency to separate and divorce is becoming a common factor. Most religions are discussing about the married life in their teachings. Some religions are having separate laws regarding this aspect. According to Buddhism one who want to attain Nibbana should abandoned all the worldly bonds he may have. Therefore there may be a misunderstanding that Buddhism does not give much attention to the stability of the married life. But study of Tipitaka clearly shows that Buddhism is having broader point of view regarding married life. Purpose of this research is to find out the Buddhist point of view on married life. Buddhism advices its followers, the Sangha community as well as the lay community, to respect and obey the law and value system of the society. Regarding the married life also it is having the same application. Many incidences in Tipitaka show that, Lord Buddha advised to obey to some practices in the society regarding married life, even though they do not match with the Buddhist teachings. Therefore, according to Buddhism marriage means, the way it is practiced in the society. Hence it dose not have separate rules and regulations for marriage. But it gives different interpretations to the existing practices. Buddhist teachings on married life can be summarized into following sub topics:  The qualities of the ideal married life  Limitations of married life - focusing to physical and mental disciplining  Relationship between married life and spiritual development of the person Study of teachings on married life in Buddhism makes it clear that it is focusing the spiritual development of the person.
Change of topography of Sri Lanka through time: an interactive web based tool
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Vidanapathirana, P.; Piyadasa, A.
The cultural landscape is one of the main sources when interpreting archaeological evidence. This means the knowledge of change of landscape through time plays a vital role in interpreting the archaeological evidence and events happened in the past. The knowledge of topography during different times in past leads to identification of landscape of events happened in past. It helps to interpret the past events more accurately and understand the different landscape dynamics in past, which were contributed to these events. The sources of the historical topography including inscriptions, ancient manuscripts, ancient maps and plans, cultural landscape, etc. The information in these sources are available in different languages, scripts and representation is based on the regional knowledge. These sources use same symbols and icons to represent the different objects or vice versa. This causes difficulties to Archaeologists as well as Historians to understand the historical topography as it needs knowledge of different domains to get a clear understanding. The aim of this study was to develop a tool for researches in Archaeology and History to simplify the process of identification historical topography easily. The primary data was collected using ancient maps, plans, contemporary records, monuments and other relevant landmarks, inscriptions, ancient manuscripts and field exploration. During the field exploration, GPS coordinates of identified locations were recorded. The reference for these topography were identified after a literature survey. The information identified in the data collection process were recorded using a database. The data were captured into the database in a manner which allows users to query and fetch information easily and fast. They information is presented in different ways including an interactive map with timeline. This interactive map provides valuable information to researches on how the historical topography changed over the time. A separate section of this tool includes the different symbologies and icons used in ancient maps with a description. The tool developed is a web based tool using open source technologies with open access to the information.
Changing patterns of food consumption with special reference to egg, fish and meat in India
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Chrispin, C.L.; Ananthan, P.S.; Jackson, P.M.; Sandeep, P.
An analysis of food consumption patterns and how they are likely to shift as a result of several factors is important to address the food security-related policy issues of any country. Real GDP growth which is outstripping population growth is making the average Indian per capita income to rise but this is accompanied by a fall in the per capita consumption of staple food. This decline indicates improvement in the welfare, as laid down by Engel‟s hypothesis. The objectives of the study are to (1) analyse the pattern of food consumption (egg, fish, meat) among rural and urban sectors in 15 major states of India to reveal the trend and changes taking place in recent years. (2) To find out the impact of increasing average Indian Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) over the cultural preferences of vegetarian and non-vegetarian food items. The study was based on secondary data from National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO)‟s household consumer expenditure surveys (CES). The four quinquennial surveys (50th, 55th, 61st and 66th rounds corresponding to 1993 to 2010) were made use of for mapping the consumer expenditure on meat, egg and fish products in different states of India while the earlier 27th round survey data was used as a benchmark to map changes over the years. Based on Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE), 15 major states were classified into 3 groups namely High, Medium and Low MPCE States, and then comparison of their expenditure for egg, fish, meat for the past 20 years were made. Analysis was done using Microsoft Office Excel ver. 2007. The study clearly indicated two important points related to Indian food consumption pattern over the decades. One, the proportion of expenditure for food items in total monthly per capita expenditure (MPCE) is declining gradually, whereas the share of expenditure for non-food items is vice-versa in both, rural as well as urban sector of all Indian states. Between 1972-73 and 2004-05, the share of food in total consumer expenditure has fallen from 73% to 55% in rural areas and from 64% to 42% in urban areas (NSSO, 2010). Two, decline in the expenditure towards food consumption is falling because of shift in consumption away from cereals to high calorie commodities such as meat, milk, fish etc, in other words from low value to high value commodities. Even though, there are several reasons claimed to be behind such a scenario, the impact of Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) reforms caused the major change, which led Indians to spend more lifestyle spends rather than regular spends. Changing income/MPCE levels as well as changes in taste/choices seems to impact the basket of food consumption (egg, fish, and meat). However, the deep rooted cultural preferences especially for non-vegetarian food still hold sway in rural areas in North Indian States of Haryana and Rajasthan though urban consumption trends are fast changing here as well. Further field-level studies are required to validate some of these inferences.
A comparative study on Mahayana Sutra of the World Father (loka pitṛu) and the Christian Gospels‟ Universal Father
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Dhammakiththi himi
The concept of a “universal father” is mainly associated with religions that are faith-based and believe in a creator God. Creation and existence is believed by the followers to be at the pleasure of this God. Gospels clearly show that the Jesus, the son of God, from time to time addressed a powerful creator in heaven, who is God, the Father. Jesus called upon the grace of this God on behalf of his followers. The son of God or Jesus is the intermediary or link between the believers and God, the Father. Both in the Holy Bible and in Holy Quran this all-powerful creator God is considered the father of all human beings. Therefore, it is clear that the concept of a „universal father‟ is directly associated with religions based on a creator God. The same concept is also met within the context of Brahman and ātman in Indian religious philosophies as well. The creation of the universe is by the Mahā Brahma. Brahma alone is the creator while other beings have only a seed of him in the form of „Paramātman (supreme self).” However, nowhere in fundamental Buddhist writing is there a reference to the concepts of a creator God, an everlasting soul or a „universal father.‟ It values the independence and individuality of the being. Accordingly the beginning of a „bhava‟ and its conclusion occurs according to the deeds of the being itself explained under cause and effect theory. But, in later writings in the Mahayana school there are some references to the Buddha as a creator and even as a universal father. Yet, these references are still different from the „universal father, concept seen in the Holy Bible. With the development of Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism, the role of a „universal father‟ was given to some Bodhisattvas. Bodhisattvas appear to be regarded even as „savior‟ gods in a manner similar to the Savior (Jesus) in Christianity. Although this is not seen everywhere in Mahayana Buddhism here we intend to compare the „universal father‟ concept in some suttanta‟s in Mahayana Buddhism with the same as it is described in the Holy Bible. The idea of the ' universal father' becomes exaggerate with an increased sacredness.
Date of the Martello Tower at Hambantota
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Wisumperuma, D.
The Martello Tower in Hambantota in the southern Sri Lanka is the sole example of this fortification type in the country. It is a round gun-tower of two stories on a small hill which was designed to be used as a defence structure. This style originated after a tower in Corsica that caused difficulties to the British during their battles with the French in 1794 and these towers were adapted to the British defensive strategies soon. The exact date of the construction of Hambantota Martello Tower is not established due to unavailability of records. The suggested dates for the tower vary; one statement said it was constructed shortly after 1796 and another placed the origin of the tower between 1803 and 1806. The first known published reference to the tower is dated to 1806. It is often mentioned that this might have been used during the barricade of the Kandyan Sinhalese in 1803, when they attacked the British held territories. The objective of this paper is to date the construction of this tower, based on authentic records of the British administration. According to the records available, Martello Tower at Hambantota was constructed after August 1804. It is evident that Major General D.D. Wemyss, Commander of the Forces in Ceylon, ordered Lt. W. Gosset of the Royal Engineers who was in charge of the engineer department at Galle to construct a round tower to contain fifty people. Records also suggest it was still under construction by mid-1805.
Decency movement (Sovaniya Andolan): timeless movement from Odisha, India
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Dash, B.B.
Odisha is a coastal state in the eastern part of India. Several pioneering movements have hitherto spread over Odisha through the eras and Decency Movement is one of them, which began in Odisha in 1962. From the last five decades the movement continues with the mission to bring a blissful reform, to set up global peace in the society and to establish a decent world. This study tries to know the genesis of the movement, its objectives and activities, the process of mass mobilization and its institutionalization, and its need of the hour and acceptance. History gives an account of the mission of the movement, the nobility of the mission, and its timelessness. After bereavement of Kumar Bhai, the founder-leader, the movement still continues. This qualitative study is based on the historiography method. Going through the old records of the movement and diaries of Kumar Bhai, it is found that the very essence of decency movement i.e. Atma-Suddhi Sangha (Self-Purification Society) has slowed down and Sovaniya Sikshyashram (School of Decency) has been geared up.
Developing Archaeological tourism in prehistoric cave sites of Sri Lanka: potentials and pitfalls
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Saldin, M.
The aim of this paper is to present a preliminary discussion of the potentials and pitfalls of developing archaeological tourism in prehistoric cave sites in Sri Lanka. It is evident that there were prehistoric settlements in Sri Lanka by ca. 125,000 BP. Evidence of the island‟s prehistoric past are apparent from the coastal deposits such as the Iranamadu formation, the gem bearing alluvial gravels of the Ratnapura district as well as cave sites or rock shelters located throughout the country. Prehistoric sites such Fa-hien cave, Batadombalena, Kitulagala (lowland wet zone in South-western Sri Lanka), Aligala, Pothana (Dry Zone North Central Province), Vettambugala, Hulannuge, Rajagala (Dry Zone, Eastern Province), Alawala and Varana (Wet Zone, Western Province) are some cave/ rock shelters which have provided significant evidence of prehistoric activities. In terms of archaeological tourism attractions, these prehistoric cave sites present a vast untapped potential. As Sri Lanka is set on achieving a target of 2.5 million tourists by the year 2016, the island is faced with a great need to diversify its tourism products. Therefore, there is a great potential to develop these prehistoric cave sites into archaeological tourism products. The study has utilized data derived from field visits to selected cave sites, interviews with relevant authorities in the fields of tourism and archaeology, as well as related literary sources.
The digital „Durga‟: tracing religio-cultural development through Willaim Blake‟s mythopoeic structures
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Ghosal, S.
“Our cultural values, which often include particular religious beliefs, shape our way of living and acting in the world. Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainability explores the importance of indigenous values and spirituality in providing guidance for sustainable living. Such principles and values encourage a spirit of harmony between people, their natural environments and their spiritual identities. The principles for living sustainably that flow from these and other cultural and religious beliefs vary between groups and countries. They have also changed over time as circumstances demand. Despite this diversity, many principles for living sustainably are shared, not only among indigenous peoples, but also between different religious traditions.” This is what the preface of a UNESCO report says and this is what has been found to be true through the ages. This paper will explore the traditional worship of the Goddess of „shakti‟ or power in India who embodies a lot of other related concepts as well. Though the rootscan be traced as far back as the Vedic ages, and this is predominantly a festival marked on the Hindu calendar, it has evolved into a community celebration where people regardless of culture, creed, religion and economic backgrounds participate in the festivities. We also find that the goddess has left the shores of India and has leapt into global focus with the diasporic communities celebrating „Durga Puja‟ with great gusto. Straingly similar figures of symbolic and mythopoeic unities of religion and culture and an advocacy of development for mankind in general through such structures are to be found in late 18th century English poet-painter William Blake‟s works. One finds global development inherent in all religions and cultures of this world. This paper will trace a parallel between such beliefs, cultures and development to uphold the theme of the conference.
The economic conditions of the Dambadeniya period as depicted by the Royal Donations to the Buddhist Sangha
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Sudharmawathie, J.M.
This paper focuses on the relationship between the economic conditions of the Dambadeniya Period and the Royal Donations to the Buddhist Sangha. The political instability during the last phase of the Rajarata civilization resulted in shifting of the capital to Dambadeniya. King Vijayabahu III was able to manage the political conditions of the Maya Rata with Dambadeniya as the center of administration. He managed to create a political atmosphere which enabled himself and his successor to develop religious and economic conditions in the kingdom. Until the 13th century AD the economy of the dry zone depended on the system of irrigation developed by the past kings. Although the seat of administration shifted to the South-west with the establishment of the Dambadeniya kingdom economic conditions of the county did not undergo a radical change. However trade was gradually becoming a very important sector in the economy. This was probably due to the political stability and the geographical conditions of the South-west i.e. the natural harbours. As a result of these combined economic activities the economic conditions of the Dambadeniya Period were relatively good. In 1215 AD Magha, of Kalinga in South India, invaded the island and captured power in Polonnaruwa. He followed a deliberate policy of destroying Buddhism. He and his forces started harassing the Sangha and destroying places of Buddhist worship in Rajarata. Therefore the main challenge faced by Dambadeniya kings was to restore Buddhism to its past glory. Dambadeniya rulers worked tirelessly for the development of Buddhism as the state religion. The royal donations to the Buddhist Sangha were one step taken by these kings with the view of developing Buddhism. According to many sources, almost all the royal donations during this period have been made with the objective of protecting and stabilizing Buddhism as a religion. The objective of this paper is to find out the connection between the positive economic conditions of the Dambadeniya Period and the Royal Donations to the Sangha. Primary sources, both literary and archaeological, would be analyzed for this end. It is clear from the primary historical sources that the favourable economic conditions of the Dambadeniya period enabled the kings to donate immensely to the Buddhist institutions and the Sangha, and as a result, the stability and strength of Buddhism as the state religion improved.
Environmental purification through revival of Sacred Groves: an approach within religion practices
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Mukhopadhyay, M.
The present author believes that most of the religious activities of the world have a deep sense of understanding nature and society that leads to environmental faith and dependency. It is thus the author‟s apprehension that if this religious aspect is used up for environmental purification then the burden upon the several conservation organizations would be relaxed. Revival of sacred groves is one such a measure. Sacred groves are micro-spatial units where devotees of a particular religion come for retaining their mental sanctity. This region where the flora and fauna is kept untouched and where humans believe in nature‟s co-existence could be used as an effective conservation technique. India is painted with a huge clumps of such sacred groves scattered all throughout. The author has confined his study within the state of West Bengal in India and through his observation more than thousands of such sacred groves in the particular state have a spatial variation in response to physical setup and anthropogenic aspect. The objective is to outline some measures through which the sacred grove units which are scattered all over a particular region could be represented as a mosaic to be carried out as an outreach programme for conservation purpose A very significant finding is that with the progress of urbanization such ethnic units are losing their identity and their sacred notions likewise. It is observed that there has been a temporal deviation from the original philosophy of this micro-biodiversity unit of flora and fauna and hence an identity crisis.
The eternity of Kautilya's Mandala theory in the context of establishing the inter-state relationships
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Chandawimala, K.
Throughout the history, almost all the countries in the world have tended to make affinities with certain allied countries in various conflict situations. Those countries which sought to establish their own imperials have also involved in relations with some other countries. These relationships have been functioning in various manners from the far early times to the present. In some occasions, these relationships have helped the rulers of both countries to achieve their goals. There were some occasions where kings strategically used this practice in order to strengthen their power. The ruler who wished to create his own empire called "Vijigīshu" turned into the surrounding countries in a specific manner. He never considered his neighboring countries as 'friends' or allied nations. This theoretical perspective is clearly depicted in the 'Mandala" theory of Kautilya. According to the "Mandala" theory of Kautilya, there are five additional rulers before the Vijigīshu, or the emperor: (1) Ari - the enemy; (2) Mitra - friend; (3) Ari Mitra - the friend of the enemy; (4) Mitra Mitra - the friend of the friend of Vijigīshu; and (5) Ari Mitra Mitra - the friend of the friend of the friendly enemy. Thus, a number of kings are represented in the Mandala theory in various positions such as before, after and surrounding. Kautilya has pointed to the ways in which one can establish an empire by engaging in conflicts and friendly inter-relationships with them. However, it is quite problematic whether this theoretical perspective can be equally seen in practice. It is also questionable whether the neighbor always becomes an enemy of a given country. Even though there are certain issues in this theory, it is also important to note that it has a universal value. This research will be a comparative study on modern political theories and the theories of peace makers all over the world. Today politicians' political theories compared with the theory of "Vijigīshu", it is possible to note that there is no diversity among the Kautilya's Mandala theory and modern political theories.
Ethnic diversity as revealed from the language used in Inscriptions (3rd B.C. to 10th A.D.)
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Bandara, P.B.A.N.W.
Language is the main communication media among the human and also it is an identifying symbol of a nation. So a nation can be identified by using their language. At present, there are over 6900 spoken languages in the world. These languages belong to 94 different language families, that is, groups of languages whose share their origins. Some of the main language families are as follows: Afro-Asiatic, Indo- European, Niger- Congo, Dravidian, Sino- Tibetan and Austronesia etc. Indo-European languages are the most widely spoken languages: 44% of the world population, or 2.5 billion people, speak a language in the Indo-European family. Sri Lanka has been a multi ethnic country since proto historic period. Literary sources indicate that various ethnic groups and cast arrived in the country as invaders or travelers from early B.C. periods. Inscriptions can be used to study the above phenomenon and one of the most reliable sources for the periods. There is an immense interest on inscriptions as they are a source for understanding ancient society of the world. The main aim of this research paper is to examine the usage of inscriptions to identify different ethnic groups in ancient society.
Explanation of resource use pattern between North Central and Northern part of central highland in the early historic Sri Lanka
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Mendis, T.; Withanachchi, C.R.
Many academic researchers who worked on the history of Sri Lanka marginalized and underrated the use and exchange of resources in the country. On a regional scale, Northern Malayarata (Northern part of Central Highlands) and Nuwarakalawiya (North Central Province) has received less attention in these studies. The use and exchange of the natural resources between the mentioned regions have not been widely discussed, but existence of such in Early Historic Period (300 B.C. A.D) are evidenced by inscriptions. The present study discusses the matter using archaeological evidence, epigraphic data as well as literary sources. The Northern region of the central highlands of the country is rich in mineral sources. According to geological studies the Upper Kala Oya system originating from the Northern Central Highlands is rich in minerals such as amethyst, feldspar, mica and various types of quartz. Metal deposits were recorded vicinity of Nalanda. For a long period of time, people of the country used these resources and from the Early Historic period metal workmen have contributed to the Northern Highlands. The inscription at Bambaragala mentions a village called Kolagama (Koligama), which is a settlement of metal workers. Also, Early Brahmi inscriptions in Wegiriya devalaya and Nalanda provide evidence about lapidary and gem industry. Artisans and merchants obtain these minerals from the deposits in highlands and sub markets in peripheral small towns of Anuradhapura done a great role in supplying to the central markets at city. Also minerals such as agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli, onyx, etc. imported from foreign countries to Anuradhapura were distributed to highland areas via these same gateways. Further, it can be seen that there were certain population groups such as Parumaka, Gahapathi, Bharata, Gamika, etc. who handled the industry as evidenced by inscriptions.
An exploratory study on archery in Sri Lanka as revealed in Mahawamsa
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Herath, H.M.S.B.
In Sri Lanka archery, as a sport is representing a primeval history since 3rd century B.C. Archery was a sport of royals that highlighted recreational patterns which were connected with hunting. Ancient Lankans have shaped this sport into different events with aquiline differences. "Mahawansa" the best guide in developing Sri Lankan history has whacking information to reveal lore of archery in Sri Lanka. Also the literature such as "Pujawaliya" and "Bodhiwansa Gatapadaya", are providing facts on above mentioned phenomenon. Because archery is a competitive sport in current world, it has many rules and regulations and there were not a lot of rules in ancient Sri Lanka as at present. The objective of this study was to reveal intelligence of archery of Sri Lanka which was a folk sport among commons. Historical survey method was used in order to achieve the purpose of this study and the below conclusion was made. There were four events in ancient Sri Lankan archery. There can be identified a few rules conflated with archery in Sri Lanka such as "Akshanawedi" (shoot togetherwith lightning), "Walawedi" (shoot for the highest distance), "Shabdawedi" (shoot according to sound) and "Sharawedi" (shoot with generations of arrows) through historical sources.
Guidance provided by Buddhism to properly utilize human labour: a study based on the Sutta Pitaka
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Piyananda, W.
The ultimate ambition of every human being is to spend a happy and meaningful life. In order to achieve this goal, people often use their labour or 'working-capacity' in both good and bad ways. The topic of 'human labour is something which has attracted a major attention throughout the globe. Further, an international labour day has been devoted to the working people all around the world. Human labour is one of the major reasons behind the contemporary development. It is also clear that various misuses of this labour have resulted in a number of issues. Some of them are environmental pollution, endless production of weapons, terrorist organizations, and drug production and distribution. The present study seeks to inquire into the factors such as (a) the recommendations depicted in the Buddhist teaching with regard to the use of human labour; and (b) the major guidelines found in the Buddhist teaching with respect to that phenomenon. Buddhism considers human life as the most valuable life on the earth. It further emphasizes the importance of making human life an important one not only to the individual but also to entire society. According to the Dhammapada, the single moment which is spent in a meaningful way is more important than spending even hundred years without a proper meaning. The Buddhist Suttas include two fields with regard to the ways in which human labour has to be used. According to them, there are certain ways in which those who wish to attain nirvana should use their physical and metal labour. Such suttas as vyaggajja, and singalovada urges the laic people to use their labour (both mental and physical) in such a way that they could live a happy life and then make their afterlives successful. Thus, a peaceful and calm environment could be established only by providing the people who spend their manual labour equal opportunities. The present study focuses on studying the guidance provided by the suttas in order to achieve such a goal.
Heritage site management problem in developing countries: a case study on Temple Town Bishnupur, District Bankura, west Bengal, India
(University of Kelaniya, 2013) Chatterjee, N.D.
The prerogative of cultural geography is to analyse how space, place and landscape are shaped by culture. It focuses on people‟s relationship to the natural world and the modification of that natural landscape into cultural landscape. Cultural landscape is tangible outcome of the complex interaction between human groups with its own practice, preferences, values, aspirations and a natural or modified environment (Knox & Manston, 1987). This interaction is time and space specific. Thus each and every place has its own cultural identity. This identity may become a resource for the further development of that place. So is happen in case of the „temple town‟ Bishnupur. Geographically it is located between 22057‟15” N to 23012‟32”N latitude and 87031‟46”E to 87024‟11”E longitude. The place significance of Bishnupur is historically rooted. It was the capital of Malla dynasty. The Malla kings patronise many handloom and cottage industries including Silk, Tasar, Conch shell carvings, Bell metal, Patachitra etc. Along with this the Malla kings constructed many terracotta and brick made temples as religious symbols. Malla reign faced many ups and downs for several times. Naturally many cultural practices imprinted their material and non material culture to the indigenous Bishnupur culture. The terracotta temples witnessed as piece of evidence of that aculturation process. The temples of Bishnupur and surrounding areas were constructed in 16th or 17th century. The temple architecture of neighbouring state Orissa has a great impact on the temple of the study area. Incarnation of Mughal and South Indian style of temple can also be found (Santra, 1998). The Mughal, Parsic, Indo-Parsic, Hindu classics, Buddhist style and the mythological influences are prominent in terracotta ornamentation. Beside that the influence of Portuguese architecture is prominent (Dasgupta 1980). Thus mixture of tangible or natural resource and intangible resource in form of religious beliefs makes temples as a part of cultural environment which becomes a resource base for tourism. But it is very difficult in the developing countries to promote tourism because in most cases supply of basic needs get priority in the national planning programmes. Thus the architectural heritage sites like Bishnupur though having good tourism potentiality could not get proper priority at Local, Regional, National and International level. The present paper is trying to address such questions related to the management of heritage sites in the developing countries.