International Conference on Asian Elephants in Culture & Nature

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Airāvata in Sanskrit Literature – Religious and Socio-Cultural Perspective
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Deshpande, P.
Literature of any language is closely connected with nature as well as social culture of the established society. Elephant, a common, popular and powerful animal is widely taken care of in Sanskrit literature. It has been given different epithets, viz. Gaja, Mātaṅga, Kunjar, Airāvata etc. Most of these epithets are either attributed to it due to its functional or physical characteristics. Airāvata in Sanskrit literature is a Mythological figure. It also has religious and socio - cultural aspects. It was a son of the Irāvati and was mount of Lord Indra. It was having four or five tusks and was symbolic in nature. It was regarded as the guardian of the directions. Airāvata was always very powerful and prominent in nature and conferred upon the title of the King of elephants. Data sources and analytical approaches This presentation is based upon different literary sources like Mahabhārata, different Paurānic texts and other Sanskrit Classical Literature. Aim of the Presentation In this paper the attempt will be made to show the early occurrences of Airāvata elephant and its connection to mythology, symbolism, culture and the society.
Ancient Knowledge –System on the Elephant: A Study from the Agnipurāna and the Bṛhatsaṁhitā
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Sahoo, P.C.
Elephant as an animate commodity has been serving the humanity in various capacities since the time immemorial. Though mostly useful for the effluent ones it attracted the sagacity of ancient Indian intellectuals who occasionally devoted themselves to study and record various behavioural aspects such as gajacikitsā, hastilakṣaṇa, mātaṅgakrīḍā, gajaśānti, hasti-iṅgita-nirūpaṇa of the giant quadruped. The same is evident through a large number of references on elephants noticed in almost all branches of the Sanskrit literature starting from the epics till the latest Sanskrit compositions of the post medieval period. In this paper, two important texts from the ancient Sanskrit literature namely the Agnipurāna and the Bṛhatsaṁhitā are taken for discussion of which one belongs to the Purāna branch and the other to the branch known as astrology. The former text is found to dedicate at least three chapters and the latter one two chapters for dealing with different knowledge-systems as mentioned above, prevalent in connection with the various groups of elephants [nāgayūtha]. A comprehensive study of the materials available in these two texts on the above topic would reveal some significant points in addition to the already existing set of knowledge regarding the ancient elephant-life and the human acquaintance with the same.
“Animal Cruelty and the Public Opinion on using Elephants for Perahara”: Special Reference to Mahanuwara Dalada Perahara
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Herath, O.; Liyanage, D.
Acts of violence or neglect perpetrated against animals are viewed as animal cruelty. Animal cruelty laws vary according to the state, and violations may constitute a crime or an offense, depending on the jurisdiction. In Sri Lanka, according to the Ordinance, it has been cited that the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Ordinance can be implemented if any person who shall (a)cruelly beat, ill-treat, over-drive, over-ride, abuse, or torture, or cause or procure to be cruelly beaten, ill-treated, over-driven, over-ridden, abused, or tortured, any animal; (b) by any act or omission cause unnecessary pain or suffering to any animal; or (c) convey or carry, or cause to be conveyed or carried, in any ship, boat, canoe, or in any vehicle, basket, box, or cage, or otherwise, any animal in such manner or position as to subject such animal to unnecessary pain or suffering. On the other hand, when considering the use of elephants in the perahara the question seems to arise as to whether elephants are subjected to cruelty. So our main objective was to understand the public opinion regarding the use of elephants in the perahera. This research has been done with special reference to the Mahanuwara Dalada Perahara. Both primary and secondary data including questionnaires were used for this research. Questionnaires were distributed among 100 people randomly who were watching Mahanuwara Dalada Perahara in 2015. In addition, books, web sites, online magazines were taken as secondary data. Since the collected date was quantitative, data analysis has been done quantitatively. According to the findings, the majority of the people like to use elephants for Perahera. They do not agree with the idea that elephants are subject to cruelty or inhumane treatment because of the Perahera and they believed that elephants must be continuously used in the Perahera.
Asian Elephants Anthropomorphised: from Parables to Popular Culture
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Kumar, A.
Animals have been anthropomorphised in fables of almost all the cultures of the world since time immemorial. Children often have their first perceptions of the characteristics of animals through these anthropomorphisms - projections of human qualities upon animals - in the various narratives now available through multiple media. Elephants have evoked fascination among humans ever since they might have encountered each other for the first time. It is one of those few animal species that have well-developed mythic symbolism that is shared collectively by most of the Southeast Asian countries owing largely to the Buddhist and Hindu origin. In the famous parables of the Jatakas and the Panchtantra, elephants have been depicted as gentle giants, guardians, bearers of wisdom, dignity and luck while also as haughty and callous brutes. With numerous representations in multiple media of the popular culture, the elephant is one of most well recognised and loved animals among children and adults alike. These representations in the ancient and modern texts cast the elephants (and other animals) as personalities with characteristics and emotions that draw the fascination of human viewers and audiences. This paper analyses the characterisation of anthropomorphised elephants in selected ancient Indian parables from the Panchtantra, the Jatakas, and other mythological stories and in the contemporary popular culture including in animated films, advertisements, soft toys, video games, logos and mascots, tattoos and nursery rhymes among others, to explore the cultural meanings that are embodied in those characters. In this process it is shown how as a literary device and a cultural practice, anthropomorphism of the elephants speaks much more about us as humans than the animal. It will also probe the evolution that the anthropomorphic representation of Asian elephants has gone through.
Asian Elephants in Christianity (India and Abroad)
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Johns, J.
The Asian elephants have contributed to Indian religions in a great way especially with their representations in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain art. The contribution to a foreign religion, Christianity is evident but scarce in comparison with the religions which originated in the Indian sub- continent .This is merely because the theology of Christianity and its literature was already codified or in the process when the religion arrived in India. Thus from Biblical sources we get few references, not to the elephant itself, but to its valuable ivory. This for one indicates the value of the animal product – ivory, than the animal itself. The process of trade of Indian elephants and ivory continued in the period of first few centuries BCE and CE as part of Indo- Roman trade. The trade reduced with the decline of Indo- Roman trade and the preference for African elephants, despite the fact that Asian elephants could be trained better. Another reason was that Roman Circus’s and gladiator fights went into disuse with the coming of Christianity in Rome. The Christian connection in India appears once again when Christians coming from Ancient Persia (Syria) were granted the privilege of riding an elephant amongst other luxuries, due to the community’s importance in trade. The elephant connection with Rome and Christianity is re-established in the 16th Cen C.E when an Asian elephant ‘Hanno ‘is presented to the Pope. The role and impact of this elephant in life and death has been well documented, influencing many an artwork in Rome and beyond. In this paper the researcher aims at compiling the connection of the Asian (Indian) elephant with Christianity since biblical times, with this an attempt will also be made to study the context and impact of the elephant on the particular Christian communities with which it interacted.
Asian Elephants in Sri Lanka: A Selective Annotated Bibliography
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) de Silva, A.P.U.
The Asian or Asiatic elephants called as Elephas maximus are distributed in South- East Asia from India in the West to Borneo in the East. Normally the Asian elephant is smaller than the African elephant. As such Asian elephants are often exaggerated. Asian Elephants in Sri Lanka is very popular and very important topic at present. Besides there is a gigantic connection between elephants and Sri Lankan society. Elephants are connected with various aspects such as zoological aspects, ecological and environmental aspects, historical aspects, art and religious aspects, literature and folklore aspects and sociological aspects. However there is limited literature related to Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. This research attention has been paid to collect all literature like books, journals, manuscripts, journal articles, newspaper articles, non-book materials, websites and internet sources related to Asian elephants. The main objective of this study is to identify all the literature related to Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Other objectives are to categorize the literature about Asian elephants and to create a selective annotated bibliography of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Mainly this research is based on the secondary data. Secondary data is gathered from dictionary, encyclopedia, periodicals, text books, web sites, etc. The main tool of the study was the National Bibliography of Sri Lanka. The study was conducted within a limited period; since 2000-2015. According to the National Bibliographies, bibliography data was collected related to Asian elephants. There are 12 National Bibliographies per year and nearly 200 National Bibliographies were studied. But number of publication were several. So that study was conducted back till 1990. This study tries to collect 100 or more entries of bibliography related to the Asian elephants. This selective annotated bibliography of print books and web sources is meant to provide guidance to academic libraries to build a collection of all the resources related to Asian elephants.
Asian Elephants in the Chittagong Hill Tracts: A Perspective
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Chakma, J.; Chakma, P.
CHT is a unique part of the country of Bangladesh, both in terms of landscape and its people with 13 different ethnic groups. The area of the Chittagong Hill Tracts is about 13,184 km2, which is approximately one-tenth of the total area of Bangladesh and is characterized by evergreen and semi evergreen dominated forest. CHT elephant belongs to the category of the Asian elephants. Only about a hundred years ago, elephants were abundant in most of the forests of Bangladesh. But now resident wild elephants are present only in Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Cox's Bazar. Trans-boundary elephants reside in the north-east and south-east with ranges overlapping neighbouring India and Myanmar. Recent estimate conducted by IUCN Bangladesh in 2004 show that the number of wild elephants is no higher than 150 in the region. Elephants are critically endangered due to habitat crisis. One of the major threats to the elephants is artificial population growth sponsored by Bangladeshi government since 1980 for mitigating. Apart from that Kaptai hydro-electric power project, Karnofuli Paper Mill, Logging, Illegal Bengali Settlement, Tourism, degradation of forest cover, intensification of agricultural practice, unplanned road construction and establishment of monoculture forests and militarization are also liable. There is no conflict between humans and elephants in general. But conflicts arise when the so called development projects are implemented breaking the natural law. Elephants come into conflict with humans because of inadequate space, food shortage, and various human activities. Being umbrella species, elephant is a symbol of healthy ecosystem, contributing to the ecological functioning in the forest in various roles. It is thus essential to observe the present status and come up with a long term action plan to perpetuate remaining elephants in CHT. Although all the wild elephants are protected under the Bangladesh wildlife Conservation act 1974 and cannot be hunted, killed or captured. According to the wildlife act 2011, the penalty for killing of a elephant will be imprisonment for 2-7 years or fine of 100,000-1,000,000 or both. But the need for conservation of elephant is not receiving enough attention at implementation levels. In this case, practical interaction with regional shadow governments and associated local communities by Sustainable Jum Cultivation and participatory forestry can ensure the sustenance of the species and the reduction in Elephant - Human conflicts. Likewise, awareness programs can be conducted based on both in governmental and non-governmental organizations with local people's participation. Above all there's no other way than the implementation of "CHT Peace Accord".
‘Asian Elephants’ in ‘Madhubani’ Paintings: Legends, Mythology and Iconography
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Yegnaswamy, J.
“Madhubani” is an ancient folk art of the Mithila region in Bihar, India. Until the year 1960, only the families undertook the art of Madhubani painting, as the skills were transferred exclusively from mothers to daughters. By tradition the Madhubani paintings (chitrakari) were composed and painted solely by women, and their subjects involved folk songs, tales, social and religious belief. Besides such narrative themes, the Madhubani paintings also included emblematic expressions that associated cultural and religious beliefs with Mother Nature. Accordingly several birds, water animals, and certain quadrupeds are depicted with symbolic expression in Madhubani paintings. In this context, the quadruped elephant had been an admired subject, depicted as a fertility symbol, insignia of power for its immense strength, and also as a status symbol for its huge physical structure. The subsequent spread of Hindu Classical (puranic) mythologies introduced several elephant related Hindu deities such as Indra, Indrani, and Ganesha into the Madhubani folk tradition that were absorbed in Madhubani visual compositions. Thus, in the Mithila tradition the Madhubani paintings containing images of elephant are measured auspicious used significantly for certain social and religious events. This paper will shed light on the aspects of local legends and mythology behind the depiction of elephant in Madhubani canvas paintings (patachithrakari), and the iconographic elements absorbed by Madhubani artists. Besides this, the style, use of material and colors, techniques and the aesthetic values applied by Madhubani artists using the ‘Asian elephant’ as a visual subject in their painting will also be discussed with selected visual examples incorporated in this paper.
Association of Elephants with Goddess Lakshmi: Myth, Ritual, and Temples
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Sankrityayan, N.K.
Myths encapsulate what societies have envisaged of as sacred, and they articulate the manner in which the sacred is understood in that society. The paper tries to look on those myths associated with the goddess Lakshmi, which will help us understand her conceptualization, what she signifies and how vital she is to the cosmology visualized by brahmanical texts that were written over centuries. Lakshmi, like other deities, does not inhabit a world entirely of her own, she has to be studied in relation to other gods and goddesses and the various symbols associated with her. The symbols which are particular objects and attributes connected with Lakshmi lend character to her persona. A very common image of Lakshmi is one in which she is flanked by elephants who pour pots of water on her. This act of performing abhisheka is essential to constituting and reaffirming royal authority. At the popular level, a number of Jataka stories reflect some commonly held cultural perceptions about the elephant. The association of elephants with prosperity and with kingship is equally significant. Elephants are also associated with grandeur as can be seen in the Buddhist myth of Mahamaya. How important elephants are to the Hindu divine pantheon will be analysed through her association with Lakshmi. Images of Lakshmi, mostly accompanied by elephants on either side, have often been found on the lintels of temples, doors and gateways across the subcontinent, as prescribed in texts on art and architecture. The paper will discuss iconographic representation of Lakshmi as Gajalakshmi in the Chalukya temples in particular architectural spaces.
Attendance, Composition and Health Status of Captive Elephants (Elephas maximus) at the Annual Sonpur Livestock Fair, Bihar, India
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Ashraf, N.V.K.; Anavangote, A.R.; Talukdar, A; Choudhury, B.; Menon, V.; Maheshwary, R.; Narayanan, A.
Attendance, husbandry practices and demographics of elephants attending Sonpur Mela, the largest livestock fair in Asia, is compiled and compared based on the 15 years of data collected from 2001-15. At each health camp organized by Wildlife Trust of India, elephants were assessed for clinical parameters like general body condition, vision impairment, and presence of wounds especially on the foot. Non-clinical parameters recorded included husbandry practices, mode of acquisition of elephants, state of origin, ownership details, distance travelled to the Mela and their previous visitation to the fair. The health camp team recorded 806 cases, with many of these being repeated cases as elephants often attend more than one fair. The sex ratio of male and female elephants was near equal (51:49), with about 77% of the males being tuskers. A sizeable proportion of the elephants (18%) were calves, suggesting that not all of them could be considered born to captive males. Majority of the elephants attending the Mela traveled from nearby districts of Bihar (200 to 400 km), followed by Uttar Pradesh (500 to 1000 km). Almost 43% of the cases showed evidences of improper foot care (over grown toenails, cracks, worn out footpads). Unilateral or bilateral corneal opacity was not uncommon, occurring in 14% of elephants. The condition of elephants that come to Sonpur Mela is a good reflection of the health status of captive elephants in the country. Annual attendance at Sonpur has been on the decline from 92 in 2001 to only 14 in 2015. This decline of around 84% in 14 years is attributed to: 1) Restrictions on elephant keeping without ownership certificate; 2) Complete ban on elephant trade since 2002; and 3) Non issuance of interstate transit permits by Forest Departments. If the current rate of decline in attendance is an evidence to go by, there may not be any elephants at Sonpur Fair by 2020.
Attributes of Elephants as Seen in Jātaka Aṭṭhakathā
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Tayade, M.B.
‘Elephant’ in pāli as hatthi, nāga is known for its attributes. It is said that elephants have many additional attributes we humans lack; incredible long range infrasound, communicating in voices we never hear, such sophisticated hearing that even a footfall is heard far away, and, of course a memory that far surpasses ours and spans a lifetime. Pāli Jātaka Aṭṭhakathā highlights many of such attributes which can be studied along with the wonderful stories of the past life of Buddha that enhances their qualities. Dummedha Jātaka, Saṁgāmāvacara jātaka, Upāhana Jātaka are some of the jātaka-s which highlight the listening, learning, remembering capacity of the elephant. As seen in the verse about the elephant who was instructed to stand on two legs and the elephant stood on his two legs; “dvīhi purimapādehiyeva ṭhapehī’’ti āha, mahāsatto dve pacchimapāde ukkhipitvā purimapādehi aṭṭhāsi” It is said that elephants display many other attributes of humans. They can be happy or sad, volatile or placid. They display envy, jealousy, throw tantrums and are fiercely competitive. They grieve deeply for lost loved ones, even shedding tears and suffering depression. These qualities can be seen from ‘māti- posaka jātaka’ where the elephant does not eat remembering his blind mother and at the same time the mother elephant laments missing her son who is caught by the king. Finally the king lets the elephant go saying, “Muñcathetaṃ mahānāgaṃ, yoyaṃ bharati mātaraṃ; Sametu mātarā nāgo, saha sabbehi ñātibhī’’ti.” Elephants also have a sense of compassion that projects beyond their own kind and sometimes extends to others in distress. They help one another in adversity. This paper is an effort to bring out some of the attributes of elephants as seen in the Pāli Jātaka aṭṭhakathā literature.
Ayurveda and Elephant: A Study of the Elephant from Medical Sciences
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Kolarkar, R.
The elephant plays a significant role in the life of human beings. Its enormity, strength and body with its tusks and even its bones are used by humans for various purposes. It is used in battles and wars for its size and strength and its body parts like tusks [ivory] and bones are used for jewelry and related cosmetics industry. Medicine is also a field in which elephant by-products are used. They have been used for a long period of time as evident from Ayurvedic literature. This paper will try to study the elephant from ancient medical science of Ayurveda and see how the elephant and elephant products were tested and used for the benefit of the mankind. This paper will also try to study whether those remedies or medicines are applicable today and if they are still used for the purpose of medicine. References of some of the medicine related to elephants are given below; Ayurveda mentions certain medicines with reference to elephants and they are seen in the Sushrut samhita cikitsa stana, Carak cikitsa Arsha. Carakacharya has explained eight types of urine; urine of sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, elephant, camel, horse and ass. In general urine is sharp, slightly non unctuous, pungent saline, and useful in anointing, pasting, non-unctuous enema, purgatives and abdominal disorders. Elephant urine is salty and beneficial for patients with worms (Krimi) and Kushta (Skin Disorders) and recommended for retention of urine and feces, poison, disorders of Kapha and piles.( Carak Sootrasthan1/102). The milk of elephants promotes strength and is heavy and a good stabilizer. (Carak Sootrasthan27/223). Hasti danta masi and rasanjana mixed with cow’s urine (Gomutra) is a local application that is good for indralupta (Alopecia) (Sushrut samhita cikitsa stana1/101), Hasti danta masi and rasanjana mixed with goat’s urine is a local application is good for Indralupta (Alopecia) (Bhavprakash Madhyam khanda 61/10), Fumigation is efficacious with excreta of elephant, sarja rasa and ghee (Carak cikitsa Arsha14/51) and is good for piles. There are references about the use of these medicines in Ayurveda. The detailed study of this area forms the basis for this research.
Behavioral Characteristics of Sri Lankan Elephants
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Katupotha, J.; Sumanarathna, A.R.
Two species of elephants are traditionally recognized, the African elephant (Loxodontaafricana) and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). The Asian Elephant (also recognized as the Indian Elephant) is a large land animal (smaller than the African Elephant) that lives in India, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Sri Lanka. This elephant is used extensively for labor; very few are left in the wild. Their life span is about 70 years. Classification of animals shows that the Sri Lankan elephants belong to Kingdom Animalia (animals), Phylum Chordata, Class Mammallia (mammals), Order Proboscidea, Family Elephantidae, Genus Elephas, Species E. maximus. Herds of elephants live in tight matriarchal family groups consisting of related females. A herd is led by the oldest and often largest female in the herd, called a matriarch. A herd would consist of 6-100 individuals depending on territory, environment suitability and family size. Compared to other mammals, elephants show signs of grief, joy, anger and have fun. They are extremely intelligent animals and have memories that would span many years. It is this memory that serves matriarchs well during dry seasons when they need to guide their herds, sometimes for tens of miles to watering holes that they remember from the past. Mating Season of the elephants is mostly during the rainy season and the gestation period is 22 months. At birth a calf (twins rare) weighs between 90 - 110 kg. As a calf's trunk at birth has no muscle quality it suckles with its mouth. It takes several months for a calf to gain full control of its trunk. The encroachment of habitats is one of the foremost threats facing elephants in Sri Lanka. Many climate change projections indicate that key portions of elephants’ habitat will become significantly hotter and drier, resulting in poorer foraging conditions, directly threatening calf survival. Increasing conflict with human population and poaching for ivory is additional threats that place the Sri Lankan elephant’s future at great risk.
Behavioral Psychology of Elephants as Studied through the Pali Jataka Atthakatha
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Shiktode, M.
The Pali Jataka Atthakathas as told by the Buddha is a rich source of moral stories of past births. The Bodhisatta is seen fulfilling his paramitas before attaining Buddhahood. It also provides a great source to understand the behavioral psychology of various animals. Buddha had observed many qualities in elephants like intelligence (pañña), leadership, gratefulness (kataññu), understanding, capacity to observe minutely, follow advice, tremendous learning capacity (Susikkhito), logical thinking, patience, bravery (sūro), powerful (balavā), vigilance, protective of his herd and dependents, responsibility towards aging parents, caring, respect towards mother-child relationship, kindness, helping nature, compassion and making tools. In the Jatakas, it is seen that the elephants possessed many human qualities, when the Bodhisatta is born as an elephant, he goes beyond those humanly qualities, as he sacrifices his own life for the safety of his community/herd, being a leader. This paper attempts to understand, with the help of various Pali Jataka Atthakaths, the qualities of elephants that Buddha had observed 2500 years ago. Some of these qualities are now studied through experiments by scientists like Diana Reiss, Preston Foerder, Louis Irwin, Cynthia Moss, Joshua Plotnik, Frans de Waal, Edward Topsell and Joyce Poole.
Behaviour and Social Dynamics of Asian Elephants: Can Beehive Fencing Deter Asian Elephants from Raiding Crops?
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Butler, K.M.
Human-elephant conflict (HEC), specifically crop-raiding, is a major conservation challenge. Many methods have been trialled to deter elephants from crops with varying success. One unique method demonstrating success in Africa is beehive fencing. A beehive fence is a simple construction of beehives hung from posts and connected to each other with wire, surrounding an area to be protected. Trials show that farms protected by beehive fencing experience less crop raids than nearby farms without. Thus, beehive fencing may play an important role in reducing farmer-elephant conflict. This project is the first to investigate beehive fencing as an Asian elephant crop-raiding deterrent, while simultaneously investigating characteristics and social patterns of the local elephant population to assess whether crop-raiding individuals share common traits, or if social patterns can provide insight into how elephants acquire crop-raiding behaviour and/or learn to respond to mitigation techniques. We are working with farmers highly affected by crop-raiding, to establish and monitor beehive fences and to teach beekeeping skills. Data is collected on crop-raiding events, and demographic characteristics, personality, association patterns and genetic relatedness of elephants, using methods including researcher observations, farmer interviews, transect surveys and DNA analysis. Farmers should benefit from reduced crop-raiding and improved harvests, and also from additional income generated through honey sales. Generating in-depth knowledge of elephant crop-raiding characteristics and the overall potential of beehive fencing as an Asian elephant deterrent will enable identification of other HEC hotspots in Asia that may benefit from this technique, and help to facilitate its expansion to other locations.
Beyond gaja and yānai: Etymological Significance of Asian Elephant Names used in Sanskrit and Tamil Literature
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Ashraf, N.V.K.
No animal has appealed to the human psyche as much as the Asian elephant in Indian culture, religion, mythology, folklore and more importantly in written literature spanning over 3,000 years. Mammoth and yet tamable, gentle and yet unpredictable, terrestrial and yet aquatic, quadrupedal and yet ‘hands-free’, the elephant is indeed a fascinating animal with an alien appearance. If there is one animal that can be named diversely by virtue of its oddities, it is the elephant, and elephant alone. Languages, especially classical ones of great antiquity and literary diversity, invariably have more than one word to mean an animal. Greater a language’s antiquity and literary diversity, the higher seem to be the number of words employed to mean an animal, and also the multiple meanings the very names can convey. I looked at the etymological basis for different names used for the elephant in Sanskrit and Tamil, the first two languages to get the distinction of being called classical by the government India. Apart from the two commonly employed words for the elephant in Sanskrit and Tamil, namely gaja and yānai, there are over 140 and 110 different names for the elephant used in literatures of these respective languages. We see that the elephant’s enormous strength, mammoth body size, anatomical peculiarities, behavioural features, grace and beauty, feeding habits and even physiological adaptations have formed the basis for coining these various names. The objective of this paper is to not only see how these names have been coined, but also see how and when newer names appeared, and when the usage of certain names diminished through literary history.
Bishnupur Terracotta Temples and the Representation of Elephants as Panel Work: An Evaluation
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Chatterjee, S.
Bishnupur, the medieval temple town in West Bengal has the concentration of a large group of terracotta temples that were constructed during the Malla regime in adherence to the new religious ideology of Vaisihnavism. The present paper will focus on the terracotta ornamentation of the temples and highlight the different depiction of elephants, sometimes singularly and sometimes in a herd on the temple friezes. The association of such depictions with Vaishnava texts is also found to be very much interesting which would help to place the entire study into a contextual framework. The paper further aims to draw parallels from other temples of the same period in order to generate a comparative study of the aforementioned depictions.
Body Condition Assessment Method for Neonatal and Juvenile Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) 2016
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Simpson, C.I.
The Body Condition Assessment Method for Neonatal and Juvenile Asian Elephants (BCANJE 2015) presented here uses visual assessment to assign numerical scores to six different regions of the body, which, when totaled provide a score that reflects general body mass condition. This system for elephant calves relates to and can be used in tandem with Krishnamurthy’s 2006 method used with adult Asiatic elephants, including captive elephants in India, Nepal and Myanmar and free-ranging populations in India [Ramesh et al. 2011]. The 2016 BCANJE utilizes the same indices and scoring criteria with modification for anatomical reference points and skeletal-muscular ratios that are age related. By using indices that parallel those used historically, comparison across studies can be objectively utilized. While the Krishnamurthy and Ramesh studies applied body condition assessments primarily at fixed points in time, the 2016 BCANJE system presented here is designed for regularly monitoring condition of the same animals over extended periods of time. It may be applied to the monitoring of both captive and free-ranging elephants, and has utility to hand-rearing programs as a non-invasive means of tracking condition pre and post- release. Specifically, data collected for several calves over periods of months and years could provide useful insight on rehabilitation processes such as nutrition, weaning, relocation and release, and the ability of individuals to cope with social, nutritional and ecological changes. Further, this information could be utilized in the comparison of calf development in varying circumstances such as calves hand-reared by humans, calves born to dams in captivity, and calves born to free-ranging dams.
A Case of Anthrax in Wild Elephant from Western Ghats Region of Tamil Nadu, India
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Manoharan, N.S.; Senthilkumar, K.; Jayathangaraj, M.G.
All mammalian species including human being is virtually affected by highly contagious zoonotic disease called Anthrax. Anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis, a Gram-positive, non-motile sporulating rod bacterium. Although this disease is well documented in wild herbivores of India, it is rarely seen among elephants in Tamil Nadu. On 14th September, 2011, the death of a wild elephant was reported by the forest range officer to the Forest veterinary officer, Coimbatore. A detailed examination of the carcass revealed the absence of rigor mortis, dark tarry blood exuded from the natural orifices (does not clot), rapid putrefaction, and subcutaneous swellings were noted. Based on the features the disease was suspected to be anthrax. With suspected diagnosis, the blood smears were prepared from a dead elephant. The smears were fixed and stained Leishman stains. Blood smear stained with Leishman's stain revealed numerous blue rods with typical truncated ends in short chains. Polychrome methylene blue staining was done for the demonstration of capsule. It revealed blue colored bacilli with pink colored capsular material, the 'Mac Fadyean’ reaction. On nutrient agar, irregularly round colonies of about 4 mm in diameter, flat, dull, opaque, greyish-white and a frosted glass appearance were noticed. The typical 'medusa head appearance' is noticed under low magnification. On blood agar, the colonies were weakly hemolytic. 'Bamboo stick' appearance was appreciated when Gram's stained culture smear was examined. As anthrax was confirmed, the post-mortem was not conducted. Although deep burial of carcass is permitted, the carcass was incinerated in the forest area to prevent further spread of disease due to scavenging of other wild animals. Consequent upon the incidence, ring vaccination programme for cattle, sheep and goat with anthrax spore vaccine was launched, completing the process in the villages bordering the affected forest area.
Causes for the Rude Behavior of Elephants in and around the Yala National Park: Block-1
(Centre for Asian Studies, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, 2016) Isthikar, M.A.M.
Sri Lankan elephants (elphahasmaximusmaximus) need free natural habitats for their natural way of life. Innocent elephants have adopted rude behaviour as their self defence mechanism because of unethical human practices.The objective of this paper is to find the causes for the rude behavior of elephants in and around Yala National Park:Block-1 (YB-1).Datawere collected fromYB-1, office of the Park as well as from west and north western areas such as Kirinda, Situlpawwa, Galkaduwa, Palatupana, Mahesanpura and Weeravila through observation and interviews with officers and local people in July and December 2015. Yala National Park is facilitating more than 350 elephants including the block-1 which is open to visitors. However, the elephant population varies according to different seasons. In front of the elephants, more than 175 safari jeeps and private vehicles are permitted to make safari within the YB-1. As a result, the traffic congestion is noticeable in the block. Visitors are used to repeat their vehicle movements; as move, stop and restart them inside the park, and that makes the elephants nervous, and interrupts their free roaming and feeding. Visitors tend to shout, show objects such as bottles and sometimes throw those objects towards them, wave hands, hoot vehicle horns, flash their cameras towards elephants and some also try to feed unnecessarily. The villagers intrude upon the park for numerous purposes and hurt elephants in different ways. Due to above such human activities, lack of seasonal carrying capacity in the park, and with the attraction of tasty ready-made food around the park, elephants occupy, feed and trample outside the park during the drought which is prevalent from May to August. People light crackers, fires, shout, make noises with tins and coconut shells and use of lethal devices, and shoot elephants as well as chase them away. Some elephants remain with injuries. With such repeated incidents, some elephants become rude and try to attach humans.